Franco-Hungarian relations

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We will now take a big leap forward in time and discuss Franco-Hungarian relations after 1870, leading up to the 1914-1918 war and the Treaty of Trianon, which was so disastrous for Hungary. Before we get there, however, we must recount a few events that would have a major impact on these relations.

First, there was the rise of Prussia under Bismarck, who wanted to make the kingdom the unifier of Germanic diversity, which at the time consisted of some forty sovereign states under Austrian rule. A clash of power ambitions was inevitable. It led to war, and in 1866, after Austria lost the Battle of Königgrätz, nothing could stop Prussian expansionism.

In the fall of 1870, France once again became a republic, the third of its kind, which saw itself as the heir to the Revolution. It was based on universal suffrage, the secularization of society, the fight against the clergy and even religion, the liberation of “oppressed peoples,” and the desire for revenge against Germany, which had become an empire. The ruling party, the Radical Party, governed France until 1920. Between a third and half of the Radical ministers were and would be Freemasons. This specific republican ideology was completely foreign to the dual monarchy, particularly in Hungary. The latter, in addition to its attacks on the Church, saw the proclamation of the recognition of oppressed peoples as a threat to anything that could have constituted the recognition of Hungarian minorities.

What is more, the coexistence of such different ethnic groups makes no sense to a French republican who only recognizes nation states and considers Austria-Hungary to be a quasi-feudal anachronism.

After the compromise of 1867, Austria and Hungary were no longer distinguishable, even though the latter country retained a certain aura among the heirs of the revolutions of 1848. Some still dreamed of separating Hungary from Austria, even though the latter was increasingly being pushed into an alliance with Germany, which is what ultimately happened.

In 1879, Germany and Austria-Hungary signed a treaty, the Dual Alliance, guaranteeing mutual military assistance in the event of an attack by Russia, as well as mutual neutrality in the event of an attack by another European country (meaning France). Austria, and therefore Hungary, would gradually become the enemy of France, which would become Russia's ally. Although the sympathies born of the revolutionary romanticism of the French left towards Hungary remained, official diplomatic relations were those conducted with an adversary that could become an enemy and wage war against you.

The 1914–1918 War

World War I broke out in August 1914 after the Sarajevo incident; France declared war on Austria-Hungary on August 3, while Hungary was rather reluctant to go to war. “It can only bring the wrath of the people and the calamities of God,” declared István Tisza, Hungary's prime minister at the time. The Austro-Hungarian army fought mainly against the Russians and experienced difficult times (the Brusilov Offensive in the Carpathians in June 1916). Until 1918, the armies of the two countries saw little direct confrontation.

It was not until September 1918 that Franchet d’Espèrey, commander of the french Armée d’Orient, comprising Serbian, Greek, British, Italian, and other contingents, launched an offensive across the Balkans against Austria-Hungary and its capital, Vienna. The Austro-German armies collapsed and nothing could stop the Allied troops: all that remained for the enemy to do was to request an armistice. I will skip the details; this was the case for Austria on November 3 and Hungary on November 13. Hungary had in fact seceded and proclaimed a republic after Emperor Charles IV recognized, on October 17, 1918, the right of the peoples of the dual monarchy to form an independent nation.

Yet history could have been written differently! Very early on, Vienna tried to break free from the German alliance and conclude a separate peace. For many reasons, which I cannot go into here, the war went on until the end. An armistice is not peace, and things became more complicated in the months and years that followed.

The Treaties of Saint-Germain and Trianon

First among these treaties was the Treaty of Saint-Germain (September 10, 1919), which would determine the fate of Austria, which had become a republic at the last minute, a move that could have appeased the victor. In fact, no one gave Austria, and therefore Hungary, the slightest consideration. Austria had been a loyal ally of Wilhelm II and fought almost to the end, mainly against what had been, until 1917, its Russian ally. Its efforts to end the war, which were often rather clumsy and made public at the end of 1918, further discredited it. By late 1917 and early 1918, all members of the French Study Committee responsible for preparing the peace treaties agreed that the question of the disappearance of the Habsburg Empire had been decided. Clemenceau, who came to power in September 1917, hesitated until early 1918, when Vienna disclosed the peace talks. It should be remembered that his brother Paul had married an Austrian woman, Sophie Szeps, the daughter of an Austrian press magnate. He also often took spa treatments in Carlsbad and had many connections in Viennese political circles thanks to Berthe, Sophie's sister.

When he took power, he was bound by the French government's previous commitments and by the lobbies that influenced public opinion through various means, notably a largely corrupt press and radical parliamentarians. Three entities of the dual monarchy, as we shall see, had already more or less seceded from the kingdom and committed themselves, more or less vigorously, to the Entente.

The first was Czechoslovakia, which had a serious dispute with Austria. Two Czech politicians, Tomáš Masaryk and Edvard Beneš, promoted Czechoslovak nationalism among European and American Masonic networks and presented their contacts with several plans for dismantling the dual monarchy. Czechoslovak legions were created to fight alongside the Entente, particularly in France, and there was no question of not rewarding them for their commitment (a Czechoslovak National Council was created in France in May 1918).

The second was the recurring Serbo-Croatian unrest. Spurred on by Serbia's dynamism (for which France had indirectly entered the war and saved from extinction in 1915), Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes aspired to a common future; how could they be denied it? It should be added that the promises made to the Italians in 1915, notably the cession of territories on the other side of the Adriatic on the Dalmatian coast, did not simplify the negotiations.

Finally, in the southeast of the country, the Romanians had their eyes on Transylvania, where half the population spoke Romanian, and this monarchy chose (belatedly!) the right side despite some hesitation. Here too, a promise had been made to lure it definitively into the Entente camp. This is what actually happened at the end of 1918, when, by entering the war on the side of the Allies, Romania obtained “its” Transylvania and even occupied Budapest for a time.

Finally, the Entente's new partner (not ally), President Wilson, declared on January 8, 1918, in point 10 of his famous speech, known as the Fourteen Points, which listed the United States' war aims: “The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to safeguard and secure, must be granted the greatest latitude for their autonomous development”, which could be interpreted in many ways but opened the door to the secession of minorities!

A dual monarchy requires a dual peace treaty, and following the Treaty of Saint-Germain, the Treaty of Trianon would complete the carving up of Central Europe. What the Treaty of Saint-Germain had planned had to be finalized, and it was Hungary that, in some respects, would pay most of the price, since it was on its territory that the nationalities that would gain their independence were located. The treaty meant that Hungary had to accept the separation of three-quarters of its former territories and their union with neighboring states, known as successor states. As a result, its territory was reduced from 321,000 km² to 93,000 km² and its population from 21 million to 7.5 million. Of the 12 million inhabitants of the detached regions, 3.5 million were Magyars. Half of them lived near Hungary's new borders. The country was reduced to a shadow of its former self; no other nation was treated with such severity. The gifts made to the various nationalities were essentially at Hungary's expense!

The treaty was ratified by the Hungarian Assembly on November 13, 1920, and Charles Huszar, rapporteur of the text, declared in solemn silence:

"On the occasion of the ratification of the Treaty of Trianon, the National Assembly appeals to divine justice and the conscience of all humanity and declares that it considers this treaty to be based on false information, unjust and contrary to the common interests of humanity, that this treaty is not the result of a bilateral agreement based on an examination of the facts and interests of both parties, but has been imposed on us by a single, foreign will... and finally hopes that a fairer assessment of the situation, which will arise when the current passions have calmed down, will pave the way for the redress of the injustices committed under the name of “peace treaty.” As rapporteur for this bill, I am forced to admit that I can find no argument in its favor. However, in the higher and vital interests of the country, I propose that the Assembly vote to ratify it, thus yielding to coercion."

Conclusion…

We will conclude here our discussion of the peace treaties of 1919-1920. The Allies failed to achieve peace and, for essentially ideological reasons, laid the groundwork for the next war while inflicting suffering on a nation that deserved better, simply to serve the interests of the victors. Who is responsible? For France, it was partly the spirit of the times and the influence of the great Jacobin Clemenceau, but he was not alone in making the decision. Lloyd George did not oppose it, nor did Wilson. Once Austria's fate was sealed, so was Hungary's.

The entire subsequent history of Hungary stems from this failed peace, but we will leave it to others to tell you about it.